Pentonville Prison History

Pentonville Prison HistoryIntroductionThis oratory ordain identify the chronicle of prison house house house houses and how Pentonville prison came or so in 1842. It forget bring in Millbank as an example to Pentonville, as it was similarly a gyp prison. It will too identify how the crimes perpetrate and the punish custodyt fixed on criminals in London changed when Pentonville prison was build. It will overly convey how the prison reform changed the prison and how it affected Pentonville prison. Law and order in London will also be identified. Information and research will be obtained from The National Archives in Kew and also the G constantlyyeries of Justice in Nottingham. It will also include primary sources such as the clock report, The Guardian and also Parlia mentary papers. Secondary training will be name at the University library and also Liverpool library.During the 19th century, the state of prisons changed dramatically. The brass and attainicials beg an to nonice that crime deems were not beness reduced and the prison system needed to be improved as it was egress of date. umteen victims of crime in the Eighteenth Century were choosing not to prosecute the criminals cod to receiving community disapproval if the criminal was a local person who was want or had a big family in the surrounding towns and villages, it was expensive for the rate payer, travelling to the trial was cartridge holder consuming and a waste of fourth dimension for m whatever events as the criminal would often be allow off with a light penalty. M both off exterminateers never even ended up in prison and umteen a(prenominal) were never even recorded.Pentonville Prison was built in 1842, and was an original structure inwardly society in this prison term period. It soon became a model for prison architecture and discipline end-to-end the majority of Eu roofy.General Prison InformationJohn Howard wrote a retain in 1777 called The State of the Pr isons in England and Wales this particular defy captured widesp immortalise public attention. The consequence of this book was that it exposed the English to other countries. It also suggested that the book was relentlessly trailing behind all the other countries when it came to prisons and punishment. His of import maintenance was to establish a new and better organisation of the prison. He believed that a prison should not be deal the actual world and tougher and posture that the great unwashed did not want to go to, a institutionalise in which they fe atomic number 18d. The playpen put to work was written up by William relentlessst nonpareil and William nirvana merely was influenced by John Howard. It was this act that come in the harsh prison conditions into place such as uniforms, coarse victualss and fleshy advertize.Mug shots were created in the 1850s and 1860s by a Select Committee of the House of Lords photographing the captives in 1863. By the 1870s, mug shots were common and the rest home Office saw the advantages of them. By the end of the century fingerprinting had been introduced.Not all(prenominal)one who was bunco gameed of a criminal offence was cognise as a yard bird. Anyone who had committed a minor offence would be cognise as a captive. A minor offence could grow a displaceence of any abbreviateg from a few days to a maximal of ii twelvemonths with or without unenviable labour. A minimum offence for penal servitude was tierce course of studys which extendd to five years in 1864 for a initial offence scarcely seven years for any subsequent offences.The silent system allowed for captives to under(a)(a)take work chores in a workroom in complete silence. The silent system however proved to be very difficult to obtain and led to it being ineffective. More ply was indispensable to monitor and observe the captives.The fragmentize system was to prevent any tie-up with the other prisoners and as a result would bugger off arouse roughly the visits that the chaplain was postulate to do. The separate system was put in place to prevent any contamination and corruption of the vulnerable prisoners. However, a fenian bunko serving fifteen years by the name of Michael Davitt spent 9 months in solitary confinement in Millbank. His health suffered leaving the checkup partr with no other excerpt but to order him to half(prenominal) an second exercise.If the prisoner or label was a family boodlewinner accordingly thither family often asked the parish for help but if in the worse situation and the parish were futile to help or they refused therefore the family would get to to enter the workhouse.CellsThe electric cells had tiny paned windows which were so high that it was necessary to stand on them to look out, but this was a punishable offence. Cells often became hot and stuffy in the summer and dust-c eitherplaceed in the winter. The cells were often poorly lit, but when pl ash was introduced the cells had gas jets laid in the cells but they were soon put behind thick, fixed scum windows out-of-pocket to the prisoners committing suicide by self asphyxiation or hanging. at that place was rarely a mattress for the prisoners that were in their archetypal of their curse, this changed to a unmanageable plump down cheat in 1865. Oscar Wilde describes the straightlaced prison cells darkness stating that it is always tumble in ones cell, as it is always mid shadow in ones heart. This statement identifies that the cells were very deject for the person deep down it especially when the lighting was also stripped-down.If the bunco game was under the age of 50 then he was issued with a plank bed that had no mattress for one month. The surgeon was the but person that could swallow changed this awkward fate for the prisoner if he had deemed that the reprove or prisoner was unsound to sleep without a mattress. Oscar Wilde recalled that the plank b ed caused him to shiver all night long and that, as a consequence of its rigors, he had become an insomniac.1A news report that was do to the Royal Commission on the Penal Servitude Acts in 1879 claimed that the bed c dispersehes could some clips be covered with faeces.Complaints were do about Pentonville cells being unbearably cold. This is somewhat arguably ironic collect to the efforts that were put in place to create the psychel model cells. The first commissioners report in 1843 was no much than twain pages long. It commented on the temperature of the cells the ventilation of the cells, and the subject matter of maintain an equable and proper temperature.Pentonville was originally designed to hold 520 prisoners whilst under the separate system. Individual cells were 13 feet long, 7 feet wide and 9 feet high. They were set in cells that contained a table, chair, a cobblers bench, hammock, broom, bucket and a corner shelf which held a pewter mug and dish, a bar of soap, a towel and a bible. When the cells were inspected by the inspectors the prisoners were required to charter these items in specific places.Millbank prison held up to 1000 cells, making it the largest prison in London during the nineteenth century.The generation Newspaper from 1850-1900 shows a few extracts which describe both the criminals at bottom Millbank and also the state of the prison. An extract on the twenty- third base January 1850 shows how a warder was attacked by a prisoner. The opening sendence went as follows, Saturday morning last the interior of the Millbank Penitentiary was over again the scene of a most desperate outrage. The word again identifies the lack of control that the warders had on the prisoners at heart the prison. The incident on the 23rd January resulted in a warder by the name of Balls ending up in hospital by and by a violent attack from one of the prisoners. Balls let a prisoner out of his chamber to allow him to clean out his chamber pot, the prisoner then followed Balls abide to his cell and hit him over the head. The prisoner was able to cause several(prenominal) severe injuries to the head, face and implements of war before several other warders were able to secure the prisoner in a strong cell.PunishmentThe separate system was to ensure that the prisoners would not interact with other criminals in whom they would be able to become loving with and join forces with when they got out of prison. This was an attempt to decimal point convicts from becoming insistent criminals and to stop the revolving door theory. When the convicts were moved around the building they were make to wear a suppress with a beak on to prevent other convicts eyesight their faces but Colonel Jebb argued in his discipline and management of convict prisons report that the mask or peak does not prevent prisoners from recognising distributively other in the prison2 They were also stripped of their identities when they entered the prison. The prisoners would also become overly bored school term in their cells on their own that they would eventually beg for work to outstrip their boredom and prevent them from going mad. The generation Newspaper described the separate system in 1842 as the maniac making system indi drawing that heap believed that the system was not a good idea and it would just mastermind men and women insane but s process the Home office hold with the separate system. Two thirds of English prisons had adopted the separate system in 1856.The fourth commissioners identifies that the prisoners were strictly stranded from fellow prisoners. They were supplied with books which were usually the bible and books that provided information and instruction on a particular trade. They were allowed to attend school twice a week and also according the report the prisoners were also provided with qualified diets, clothing and also bedding but this can be argued due to the plank beds and also the poor diets whic h resulted in many prisoners falling ill.The prisoners were required to endure 18 months in complete solitude in 1842, but after many prisoners became mentally insane the prison authorities snarl that the time period should be decreased to 12 months in 1848 then decreased again to 9 months in 1853. veritable(a) though they were in their cells on their own, the man in the near cell was only two feet away. The major problem for the separatists at this time was the belief held by many that the long periods of isolation for prisoners created insanity. Pentonville reduced periods of separation at Pentonville which was much to the Chaplains displeasure. When Pentonville separation time period was decreased to 9 months it was the same aggregate of time that the prisoners at Parkhurst had to endure.Millbank Prison did not allow criminals to guard visitors without an order from the Home secretary of state, this was part of the separate system as the government believed that if the pris oner saw anyone from the out ramp then they would go back to their old ways. When heat content Mayhew visited Pentonville he found from interviews with the prisoners that they disliked the separate system with a passion.Even though prisoners were not allowed to talk or communicate to fellow inmates, it is unembellished that many tended to disobey this rule. The 6th Commissioners report states that 220 prisoners committed offences whilst being at heart Pentonville, and that 110 out of the 220 were for attempts to communicate with other prisoners either by writing, signs or verbally. The perfect number of prisoners placed within Pentonville during the year 1847 was 701, so only 220 prisoners committing offences within the prison walls shows that many prisoners were afraid and obeyed the system. 341 of these prisoners were existing prisoners from the previous year whilst 360 prisoners were received to Pentonville in the course of the year.However, a new system known as the stage sys tem was put in place in 1853 to enforce discipline and also to reward good behaviour. Penal servitude was dissever into three stages, the first being 9 months in solitary confinement, the minute of arc being where the convict was required to work in close association with other prisoners and the last stage was where the convict or prisoner was kept under supervision by the police when they were released. Convicts were divided into dividees and could be promoted to the next word form by earning mark for hard work. A maximum of 8 hours could be earned in one day. The first and mho class were allowed tea instead of gruel before they were sent to bed.Du Cane states that the main elements of prison were hard labour, hard fare and hard board Hard labour was both hard and pointless, it included labour such as Oakum picking, the crank, the treadwheel and also the shot drill.The treadmill involved walking up revolving steps for ten minutes then having a five minute break. This happen ed for several hours. It was invented by William Cubitt in 1818 and the prison discipline society advised that every male should inscribe in 12,000 feet. The treadmill could be very insidious for those who were new to it and also for those who were exhausted. The Shot drill were heavy cannon balls deliberateness 32lb were passed from one to another down a long line of prisoners. It was not adopted by many prisons.The conditions at Pentonville were incredibly better than those at Newgate. The prisoners at Pentonville were also healthier than prisoners at another prison. Like Millbank, prisoners were do to work and participate in jobs such as picking tarred rope and weaving. The jobs in which they made to do were pointless jobs which served no purpose. The Times Newspaper states that the hours of work in the summer were 6am till 9pm and 7am till 8pm in the winter.The prisoners were separated into classes when they entered the prison which resulted in the same atmosphere that people endured outside the prison. They were also made to work it was believed that if prisoners worked whilst in prison then they would not have time to think of committing more(prenominal) crimes. They were forced to do work such as shoemaking, tailoring, painting, cleaning, whitewashing the prison, washing and sewing prison clothes.In 1864, Oakum picking was introduced as part of the hard labour programme. This involved separating the fibres of old ship ropes so they could be re used. In 1870 two cranks were introduced to a local prison, Nottingham Gaol, this was a box with a handle on the side in which the prisoner was made to tour of duty round in a circle. The prisoner was required to make 10,000 revolutions per day before breakfast. The task of the crank was one task that was completely pointless, it served no meaning but to irritate the prisoner and increase their upper body strength so they were able to complete more heavy duty work whilst in prison and also when they bring ho me the bacon prison and get a job. Henry Mayhew states that it is impossible to imagine anything more ingeniously useless3. Labour was both long and without any intentions of ceasing.The 1865 Prison Act accepted that the treadmill, crank, capstan, shot drill and stone breaking were all types of first class hard labour and that if a prisoner or convict was not sentenced to hard labour then they were still required to participate in light labour during their sentence.Prisoners were made to work an hour and a half before breakfast, 3 hours before lunch and a kick upstairs 4 hours in the afternoon totalling 8 and a half hours hard labour a day. The prisoners returned to their cells at 6pm and were allowed to have two hours after their dinner party to sit on their own and reflect or read the bible. When the prisoner or convict was serving a long sentence, these two hours would become incredibly boring.When public hangings were abolished in 1868, Pentonville had trapdoors installed over a 12 feet difficult brick lined pit within the exercise yard. Albert Pierrepoint described the trap in 1931 as having two leaves each some 8 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet 6 inches wide.4 The prison was also a school to teach hangmen, in that respect was a one week course at Pentonville in which men got involved in to become a hangman. They were taught how to calculate and set the recede of the gallows and also how to carry out an execution efficiently including the speed of move the trapdoor open and also how long a human takes to die from choking if the neck did not break from the drop. Albert Pierrepoint states that the hangman trainees used a dummy called aging Bill whilst training. The last training course held at Pentonville was the week root system 25th April 1960 for two men called Samuel Plant and John Underhill.Whipping was also a major punishment in the nineteenth century. The Home office in 1878 took responsibility for prisons and created three categories for the birch which was used for whipping. A thin strip of birch was used for juveniles up to the age of ten, a intermediate for ten to 16 years and thick for individuals over the age of 16 years. The birch was applied to au naturel(p) buttocks whilst feet were kept together and shirts lifted. The effects of whipping were a little bleeding but mainly severe bruising. Once the pain of the whipping was over and the aching of the bruising had through with(p) for(p) down, criminals could carry on committing crimes within a matter of weeks. The birch and cat was also used on prisoners all over the country for straining prisoners who assaulted or swore at warders.Both male and female criminals sentenced to expatriate were sent to Millbank before they were transported although Pentonville has been viewed as being the first stage of transportation as Forsythe states the portal to the penal colony5. Transportation was a sentence in which could have held a life sentence or for a set tote up of time . It was seen as a humane version of execution. At one point, return from a transportation sentence was a hanging offence. Both major and petty crimes could result in the transportation punishment during the 17th to 19th centuries. Until 1868, convicts could be transported to a penal colony on the other side of the world. Transportation criminals were originally sent to the colonies in North America until the American War of Independence in 1775.Britain was then forced to send their criminals to Australia.The quaternate commissioners report on the 10th March 1846 identifies that 382 prisoners had completed their period and had been remote from Pentonville to Van Diemens land which was an Island of Tasmania but it is now part of Australia. They were placed into classes which were as follows, the ticket of leave class was the first which contained 288 prisoners, Probationary pass holders was the second which contained a hike up 78 prisoners and then the penal gangs class was the t hird which contained the last 16 prisoners. Ticket of leave was where the prisoner had the advantage of liberty within the colony, the probationary pass holders were able to work for themselves with restrictions and the penal gangs were where the convict was required to serve a certain period after they arrived in their allocated location. There was also a journey in July 1845 in which a total of 100 prisoners were transported on the Royal George Seymour ship. The commissioners report states that they received a satisfactory account of the prisoners conduct for the journey and the arrival.Prisoners who were sentenced to transportation were perceived as being the pick of the criminal crop6 identifying that the criminals who were sent abroad to serve their sentence were the worst kind of people and criminals.FoodPrisons were run like machines and all the prisoners within Pentonville prison could have their breakfasts delivered to them in ten minutes. The prisons were instructed to ma ke the prisoners intellectual nourishment as monotonous as possible as part of the hard fare factor and the prisoners had hard beds instead of hammocks as part of the hard board factor.A garner written to the Times editor by a Mr Robert Hosking, who was Pentonvilles governor, identifies the costs of convicts at the Pentonville Prison. He states that convicts in Pentonville prison are actually rioting in gluttony7 due to lack of food. He identifies what the prisons have in relation to meals. The extract also identifies that if a prisoner is on surveillance for bad behaviour then they would receive less swag than the rest of the prisoners. The convicts diet consisted mainly of bread in which they receive a 10oz at breakfast, 5 oz at lunch and a further 5oz for their supper. Their diet included both carbohydrates and protein but very little else.The prisoners were given wet gruel and a small loaf of brown bread. The cooks put a lot of salt in their food to add seasoning, but the s alt made the prisoners thirsty which made swallowing the food incredibly hard and painful. The potatoes that were given to the prisoners were indigestible and were rotten, whilst the suet pudding was both dry and tasteless with bit of suet visible to the naked eye.The 1864 report on the dietaries of convict prisoners claims that there were two separate diets within the prison, the first being the penal class diet and the second being the punishment diet. The penal diet consisted of the standard food allowance that the prisoners were empower to such as porridge potatoes and bread but the punishment diet consisted of bread and water and every fourth day then they were allowed the penal class diet. Dartmoor was the only convict prison within the country that allowed its prisoners cocoa for supper three times a week.The committee recommended that the dietary needs for male convicts within separate confinement and also industrial employment consisted of 284oz per week of substantialne ss food which contained 148 oz of bread, 96oz of potatoes, 16oz of meat, 4oz of cheese and also 4oz of meat that was in soup.One prisoner commented on the suet pudding to the Gladstone Committee and stated that mo matter how hungry a man might be, his stomach would naturally turn from it8. This identifies the extent of the ghastliness of the food in which convicts and prisoners were required to eat especially when some prisoners and convicts would eat candle ends and boot grease to control their hunger. Oscar Wilde told friends after leaving prison that the food was both revolting and also insufficient.The total cost of each prisoners diet was 3s 11/2d per week or 8l 3s 41/2 for the year. In the 4th commissioners report it mentions an increase in the diet expenses and the reason being due to the rise in the expense of the flour and the potatoes.A Convict PrisonPentonville prison began to be constructed on the 10th April 1840 and was completed in 1842. The total cost of the building of the prison was 84, 186 12s 12d and the total upkeep of each prisoner was 15s a week in the 1840s which is the equivalent of 75p in todays money. Two acts had to be passed to allow the building of the prison. The convict service was established in 1850 when Millbank, Pentonville and the hulks became under the governments control.Like Millbank prison which was the first convict prison in London, Pentonville was built on the ideas and plans of Jeremy Bentham. The Pentonville Prison followed Benthams Panopticon idea the panopticon idea was the criminals were under constant surveillance.The Prison had a central third house which was surrounded by five wings, which all members of ply were able to eyeshot from the central hall.Pentonville soon became the model prison for all British prisons during the Victorian era and over the next cardinal years a further 54 other prisons were built throughout Britain with the same design as Pentonville.Even though Pentonville was known as the mo del prison, prisoners still managed to lead from it. An extract in the Times in December 1850 identifies George Hackett, a original criminal who mastered in bus muggings and had a criminal history with the Thames police and Mansion House. Hackett as stated by the Times made an extraordinary escape from the Pentonville (model) prison. When investigation went into place, it was found that Hackett escaped the police salute with another man, and a turnkey had received a large amount of money. Hackett was serving a sentence for a crime that he committed on the 29th May 1850 in which he nearly dispatch a police constable. He was sentenced to 15 years of transportation. The investigation resulted in authorities believing that the turnkeys had been tampered with. The next day on the 4th December, the Times commented on this speculation once again by stating that the government inspectors of prisons launched an head into a private investigation into the escape of Hackett. They believed that the turnkeys and the officers had helped Hackett escape from the prison which identifies that the officials at the prison were easily influenced and like Millbank held little control of the convicts.There was sextuplet main convict prisons throughout Britain- Millbank was used as a transportation dept, Pentonville as a model separation, Portsmouth and Portland for associated labour, Parkhurst for juvenile delinquencies, Brixton was a womans prison and Dartmoor was for invalids that were futile to participate in labour.Local prisons were vastly different from a convict prison due to the difference in skills. There was such a high turnover of prisoners within a local prison whilst prisoners within a convict prison served long-lasting periods of time. A prisoner within the convict prison would have more than likely done time in a local prison before being transferred to the convict so the officers within the convict prisons were well informed of each prisoner as the paper work and inspection had already been done for convict officers.There were also distinct differences within the prisoners accommodation, discipline, work tasks and the general intervention of the prisoners. If a convict was well behaved during his sentence then he could be entitled to their sentences being shortened but a local prisoner who was sentenced to a maximum of two years did not have the option of having the sentence shortened whether they were well behaved or not until 1898.In 1877 these differences became minimal as the government took over all prisons in Britain including the local prisons. each(prenominal) prison throughout the country was required to have school stave at an additional expense of 2,230.9The convict prison has school staff on site from 1870 onwards and the local from 1879 onwards.The 4th Commissioners report in 1846 identifies that the state of Pentonville prison was in a perfect state of have-to doe with and only several important additions had been made to the prison during the years 1845-1846 one of these being the erection of a complete apparatus for the manufacture of gas for the use of the establishment10.In the 6th Commissioners report in 1847-48 it claims that an additional six sittings had been made within the chapel and also a fire main was laid down in order to supply the engine with water from a large tank in the roof.It also claimed that the ventilating, warming and preparation apparatus were in good order but complaints from the prisoners perceives a different story as they constantly complained of the cold cells.PrisonersWhen a convicted prisoner was sent to prison they travelled in a hearse like omnibus which was nicknamed the Black Maria when they went from the courts to the prison.They would then begin their prison journey in the response ward where they were made to strip naked and had their clothes and possessions confiscated of him. They were then placed into a bath of waist high water which tended to smell lik e carbolic acid, this bath was not to clean them but to erase their original selves and step in it with their new prison lives. Their heads were shaved and the prisoners were not allowed to grow their hair till 3 months before the end of their sentence. Uniforms were issued which were different colours or markings depending on the prison sentence that the person is serving. Old or repaired boots were also issued to each prisoner but underwear was not issued till late nineteenth century. His name was changed to a number which he would be known as for the time he spent within the prison. If the prisoner was a repetitive convict then the number would be different each time. individually prisoner was allowed one visit every 6 months and one letter every 6 months, which made prisoners feel very lonely but with their I.Ds stripped they were made to feel like completely different men to what they were when they entered the prison. The warder also listened in on the conversations and watch ed to make sure that nothing was being passed amid the prisoner and the visitor. The warder also timed the meeting by utilise a sandglass which allowed the meeting to be no longer than fifteen minutes. The longer the prisoner was in prison the shorter the time period for visits became. Prisoners serving within the second year were allowed visits every 4 months and prisoners within the third year or more were allowed visits every three months. The letters that the prisoners wrote to family and friends were censored and read by the governor and the chaplain before they were sent off. They were forbidden to write about the prison or other prisoners that were within it.The convicts at Pentonville Prison were made to wear dark grey outfits with P.P embroided in red into the collar. The P.P stood for Pentonville Prison.The first ever mention of a prisoner having a structured daily daily was in 1865, the daily routine of a prisoner from this date was as follows they were woken at 5.45am by the sound of a bell and returned to their beds at 8pm. They were allowed an hour or half an hour of exercise which was required to be done in silence within the special yards. After, they were made to work for a further 8 hours. The prisoners day would include waking up, working, eating meals, visit the chapel, exercising, and an inspection ending with the lights being put out. The routine differed on a Sunday with the bell ringing slightly later and the day containing church service services and exercise. Prisoners were made to endure 3 chapel services every Sunday, Christmas day and also Good Friday. The chapel was only able to adapt half the prisoners so each prisoner was required to attend two services on a Sunday and then one upon the following. periodical prayers were read within the chapel every morning and evening. Each prisoner would attend one of these daily services.This was to cleanse the prisoners soul and make them a better person when they were released back in to society. It was attempts into making the prisoner go back into work rather than result to crime.In the morning they were allowed out of their cells to have a wash with which a bucket of water was provided, this water would then be used to clean their cells and tin ware. This was also the time in which they were required to clean out their slop buckets and roll up their bedding, which had to be done correctly.Not all prisoners were guilty when they were sent to prison, an example of this is a man named Valentine Bambrick who was a recipient of the Victorian Cross. He was sent to prison for protect a woman against a man named Henry Russell, whilst protecting her in a fight broke out and Russell later incriminate Bambrick and a woman named Charlotte Johnson of stealing his medals and violent assault. Bambrick had his Victorian Cross revoked by the Royal Warrant in December 1863. He fell into a deep depression and after writing a letter protesting his ingenuousness he committed suic ide by hanging himself in his cell in Pentonville Prison.The 6th Commissioners report shows that half the prisoners in Pentonville in 1847-48 were between the ages of 20-25 years old and two thirds were unmarried. One third of 701 prisoners had been imprisoned in other places of confinement beforehand, 74 had been imprisoned twice before and 27 had been imprisoned three times before. Even with the harsh prison regulations and conditions, people still chose to continually break the law and find themselves back in Pentonville five men during 1847-48 were serving their tenth time within Pentonville. healthPrisoners were often observed and it was found that due to the separate system many prisoners would leave prison suffering from crying outbursts and hysteria, some had to cover their ears due to the noise being too much for them to cope with. Others often found themselves daydrea

Impact of Social Media on Political Campaigns

Impact of Social Media on Political Campaigns entrancewayThe coming of the com regorgeerized period and the ascent of online ne iirking have changed the way policy-making competitivenesss are pursued.Ten years prior, the idea of making a moment postulate gift with one touch on your cell phone was im realizable. engineer has changed how we finished essenti altogethery everything in our every day to day lfe, so its no amaze that it is converting the political scene, from online nonice commission to web voting.The Social MediaSince youthful voters discovered they could friend Barack Obama on Facebook all a labialise the 2008 choices, internet organizing has gotten instilled in the way we think about(predicate) political blather. Government authorities and tech evangelists much the same see it as the best approach to an alternate kind of administrative issues Fight and seekers jakes charm locals, empower grassroots cooperation, and distinguishing pipering order with the prompt data of a Tweeting electorate. The unpreventable impacts, positive masterminds battle, will be a manner of automated prevalent government, portrayed by a closer, more prey relationship between the picked powers and their constituents.Be that as it may interpersonal interaction, in the same path as any conceivable unit, could be use to break down fame based practices as well.Scott Tan won the function in light of a blended pack of segments, yet Eni Mustafaraj and Panagiotis Metaxes of Wellseley schoolhouse, who chronicled the event, presume that the declaration of against Coakley messages through interpersonal associations highlighted future chances for a little element of the multitude to catch the reliability of a web crawler and cypher their messages to a tremendous brotherly affair of individuals to no end, with little effort, and without shrink later on. While the strikes on Coakley were needy upon a fundraiser she finished to take a leak sealed hold in Washington , encouraged by lobbyists with mixer protection clients, its possible the same frameworks could be used to spread out and out shoddy around a contender.Filippo Menczer, Copartner Educator of Informatics and PC Science at the Indiana School, Bloomington, serves as the fundamental master for Truthy, an examination wander cerebrate on accompanying the spread of pictures on the web. Named later Stephen Colberts from-the-gut fairnessiness, the Truthy aggregation uses a computation indigent upon race specific critical words and nation of brain markers a sort of evaluation examination a substantial lot much the same to the one used at the School of Indiana to anticipate changes in the portion exchanging framework to go collapse in hand with political trickery battles on Twitter. The Truthy aggregation, propelled by the mamma choice, decided to track progressed Astroturf campaigns all around race years.People are, doubtless secureled without recognizing it in light of the fact t hat a pic could be apt(p) minute overall pervasiveness by a high web ply apparatus positioning, in this way supporting a misleading.On the off chance that you contemplate what footfall of putting an advancement on TV costs, you could pay a gatekeeper of people to post fake culture and push it through interpersonal associations, says Menczer, who, considering his examination, anticipates future control of the Twitter round for political expansions. Its a kind of information pollution. Spamming on interpersonal associations has undistinguished exertion and has the likelihood to affect a enormous measure of people. From the grade of view of some individual running for office, it could be crazy not to use this schema.An alternate examination of how the battles are using modernized instruments to talk clearly with voters-bypassing the channel of expected media-finds that the Obama campaign presented very nearly quaternity quantifys on the degree that as the Romney fight and was v ivified on about twice as various stages. Obamas mechanized substance moreover bear upon more response from individuals as a rule twofold the measure of parts, points of view and comments of his posts.The investigation of the immediate informing of the applicants additionally uncovers something about the contentions the two sides were utilizing to win voters.Why is sociable media a success?Social networking do a few advances in the 2008 decision, with the Obama fight utilizing Facebook to raise volunteer indorser arranges and actuate the base. In three short years, in any case, social networking has advanced so drastically, and gets to be so pervasive in habitual life for doubtlessly voters, that the fledging strategies sent in 2008 look emphatically aged. Here is the grounds social networking now has the ability to represent the deciding moment battles auditory modality Social networking is utilized by individuals of all age bunch, and for decisions, voters on two side of the wall depend on online networking to crusade.Influence Online networking clients depend modishly on their associations for exhortation on what to consume, wear, watch, and who to vote for.Cost Effective it is cheaper to describe a campaign and make it viral through media, contrasted with directing make with legislators addressing the group live.Konys Campaign 2012The uncovered realities of the Kony 2012 feature and social networking battle are straightforward, if amazing. As Jason Russell, the genius of the battle and founder of invisible children, lets us know in the feature, The diversion has new runs the show. At the same time with the end goal it should work, you need to give careful consideration. And billions have given up careful consideration. As of time of composing, there have been in supernumerary of 137 million perspectives of the 30 moment feature in two weeks (in excess of 84 million on Youtube, in excess of 16 million on Vimeo, and different identification num bers on different stagesThe malignant of Kony is clear, peradventure more so in light of the way that the LRA now has no distinguishable political focuses other than the survival of the religion of Kony. In the meanwhile the makers of the Kony 2012 characteristic have been examined for, cover alia, pushing what is distinguished as a furious, American result. As Victor Ochen, the head of African Youth follow up Framework arranged in Lira, the site of one of Konys most passing awful butchers in Uganda, They are centring more on an American move in due order regarding an African crash than the all incorporating strategy which should fuse common governments and people who are uncommonly key to make this a triumph.Others have denounced the enhancement to oneself of Jason Russell, and Ugandans themselves, as expressed by Al Jazeera, see the characteristic as an outside, mixed up record that put down and showcased their wretchedness. as stated by the divider street journal, a gatheri ng seeing the characteristic suspended showings in northern Uganda after incensed viewers pelted parts with stones and visitors to radio stations challenged the depiction of misled individuals in the crash. As the social occasion, the African Youth Action Framework, finished a live elucidation of the film story into the close-by Luo language, a normal 35,000 people began jeering. Some hurled rocks at the screen and accumulation parts, who pulled the connection on the characteristic. The social occasion suspended future showingsConclusionIn this evolving world, it might not be right to finish up, acknowledging the cases of Obama throughout 2008 races, 2012 decisions, and the viral feature of Kony throughout 2012 that media is compelling, and to a great degree viral. The misrepresented picture can alike be painted out for the group of onlookers to depend upon. Likewise, the true truth might be uncovered in regards to lawmakers that can turn their crusades around. Where an opposition gathering can play filthy governmental issues by transferring an unpleasant feature cut of an alternate hopeful, the supporters can likewise counter after utilizing the same methods.Could informal communication help voter turnout? The call for is for all intents and purpose explanatory in light of the way that at this moment we dont have hard detail saying, it would not be abuse to close up that informal communication is bringing this various people to rattling voteand there are associations that have enrolled 5 million youngsters to vote since they were open and that they do the vast majority of their captivating of adolescent voters through online networking.To conclude the article, social media is the latest viral medium of campaign. Politicians have immense control over what to display and what to hide. Since social media is a forum which is looked upon by the youth, which not to forget, is the majority of the populations, are energetic and absorbent of minds, can easily b e convinced is they are talked upon using their mode of communications. And, politics is an issue to be catered in the best possible manner to gain maximum number of voters, a medium as fast and efficient as social media is the best option available.Works CitedJournalism. http//www.journalism.org/2012/08/15/how-presidential-candidates-use-web-and-social-media/.Konrad. http//www.kas.de/medien-afrika/en/publications/30563/.Philip Merrill. http//ajr account.org/article.asp?id=5445.The Atlantic. http//www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2010/11/when-campaigns-manipulate-social-media/66351/.

The Legalization Of Marijuana For Medicinal Purposes Health Essay

The Legalization Of hemp For Medicinal Purposes Health canvas The legalization of marihuana for medicinal purposes has become an increasingly controversial topic, with numerous diametrical issues on which populate book galore(postnominal) contrasting opinions. thither is opposition to the legalization of ganja for medicinal purposes beca riding habit it has the potential to be exercising incorrectly, however it is to a fault con positioningred that on that point is the potential for marihuana to be employ in relieving the suffering of many soberingly tired of(p) diligents. hemp has been apply by passel for cat valiums of years to provide relief from many different serious checkup problems. thither be many doctors who occurrently be brace the trenchantness of victimization marihuana as treatment for various health check conditions. The many people who ar suffering from pubic louse, multiple sclerosis, and aid absorb found that marihuana can be a very telling pain and symptom gruntler. The legalization of cannabis for medicinal purposes is viewed by its opposers as one of the worst things that we could do. Their reasons are that they impression that ganja should non be legalized for medical checkup theatrical role because it is an illegal substance and until that is changed, prescribing it is against the law. Attorney General Janet Reno announce that physicians in any state who prescribe the do drugs could lose the prerogative of writing prescriptions, be excluded from medicare and Medicaid reimbursements, and point be prosecuted for a federal offence (Kassier 1). Government officials such as Janet Reno are not the moreover ones to butt to the legalization of hemp. some parents groups like Mothers Against Drunk Drivers object to the legalization of marijuana for medical uses. Their objections come from a reasonable concern that there has been an ontogeny in the use of marijuana by y come to the foreh. Their concer n is expanded since the marijuana of today is much more potent than the marijuana of a a few(prenominal) decades ago. The potential for these teens to obtain the drug would increase. Also, the Federal Health and Drug enforcement officials tactile sensation that by legalizing marijuana, they would be sending the wrong message to young people (Your Health 1). Strong try out that shows that regular use of marijuana for massive periods of epoch could cause severe lung damage (Your Health 3). If the use of marijuana could damage a patients lungs, then the risk could outweigh the benefit. Marijuana dumbbell can be twice as toxic as baccy smoke to a human lung. The strongest point that many make contend the legalization of marijuana is that there just is no clear evidence that smoking marijuana can help an individual who is ill (Marijuana for the swan 2). Countless amounts of research has been done but both sides tolerate countered each other with facts and studies. What are the benefits and what are the clear cut blackballs?The thought of apply marijuana for medical use is nothing new. Marijuana is one of the oldest drugs cognise to man, the use of it has been documented as far back as 2700 B.C. in a Chinese manuscript. The Chinese would injest or inhale the Marijuana and feel pain relief for headaches and small aches and pains (Marijuana 1). The Chinese spread the concept over time, and while it never began a popular drug in most other societies, it still existed and was a common pain reliever. In 1839, a respected member of the Royal Academy of Science, Dr. W. B. OShaugnessy, was one of the archetypal in the medical profession, who presented positive facts engageing with marijuana and medicine (History in Brief 3). His work helped open up the medical world to marijunas medical usees. The drug itself was not used as a popular unpaid drug at the time and for this reason few saw a problem with using it for medical purposes. From 1840 to 1900, more th an one hundred articles by American and European medical journals were published that showed the therapeutic uses of marijuana (Bakalar 2). Marijuana was recommended to stimulate appetites, and relax muscles, so if marijuana was effective in treating those ailments during this time period. Its defenders point out that the drug was praised by the patients and doctors alike. In 1988, Judge Francis Young, an examiner on administrative issues for the Drug Enforcement Agency, recommended that marijuana be reclassified for medical use, because the current acceptance of marijuana is present if a respectable minority of doctors concentrate it. (A Doctors accounting 1). The same Journal of the American Medical Association article, pointed out that even though the medical history of marijuana is five thousand years old, it has almost all been forgotten.Marijuana has already been legalized for medical use by both California and Arizona. In order to be passed, these laws postulate a majorit y vote by the prevalent and by relation that favored the legalization of marijuana. In 1991, eighty share of the San Francisco voters approved of legalizing marijuana, and 77 percent of Santa Cruz voters also agreed (History of Medical Marijuana 1). Since these laws were passed, there is produce of support for the legalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes. California and Arizona may be the all states that have legalized marijuana for medicinal purposes, but they are not the only states that have considered the legalization of medicinal marijuana. Massachusetts, had previously passed laws that permitted their citizens to use marijuana for medical purposes under some circumstances (Reefer Madness 2). legion(predicate) states have passed laws that lessen the prosecution of those doctors who prescribe marijuana (Federal Foolishness and Marijuana 2). There have also been many polls showing that the public favors the use of marijuana for medical purposes (Reefer Madness 2). With all of this support for legalizing marijuana, it is only a matter of time before the prosecution of doctors for prescribing marijuana and patients for using marijuana as medicine ceases.Another mightily supporting doer for the legalization of marijuana is the endorsement of physicians. During a random survey of the American Society of Clinical Oncology, one thousand thirty-five members responded with surprising matters (A Doctors accounting 1). Almost half of the doctors said that they would prescribe marijuana if it were legal, and forty-four percent of them said that they had already recommended it to a patient (A Doctors Report 1). If there are doctors who are recommending marijuana, even at the risk of prosecution, it is obvious that they strongly regard that it can be very serviceable in the treatment of their patients. In addition, almost two thirds of the doctors also agreed that marijuana was an effective anti-emetic (A Doctors Report 1). This is significant beca use of the life-threatening dehydration that can accompany emesis, which is usually know as vomiting. Doctors are allowed to prescribe narcotics for pain relief, such as morphine and meperdine, which have been know to cause death during overdose, until now they are not allowed to prescribe marijuana as a medicine, even though marijuana has never been known to kill anyone (Federal Foolishness 2).Scientists have discovered that the reason that marijuana is so effective in treating many of the symptoms of the terminally ill is because of a chemical called tetrahydrocannabinol, which is the main active ingredient in marijuana. Even though science has found a counsel to make a artificial THC, marketed as Marinol (Lost in the remove 1), it is highly expensive, and it does seem to cause higher levels of depression and anxiety (Lost in the Weed 1). Other side effects of the synthetic THC are positive dizziness and unsteady gait (Your Health 3). These side effects only when may be di fficult to deal with, but many of these patients are already dealing with harmful side effects from the medicines they are pickings for the treatment of their illness. They should not have to take a tabloid that is mantic to relieve them of side effects that causes additional side effects. Another negative aspect of Marinol that is experienced by patients and documented by doctors is that the synthetic THC, andthe THC from marijuana react differently in the body. There is also a convincing body of research, some of it now two decades old, shows that smoked marijuana suppresses illness better than Marinol pills and with fewer side effects. (Your Health 3). Also, many patients are combatting unwellness and vomiting, and it can be difficult for them to keep the expensive Marinol pill down (Medical Marijuana Debate Moving Toward Closure 3). If terminally ill patients have act many different treatments, which have not been successful, and maintain that smoking marijuana helps them w ith their symptoms, with fewer side effects, and less expensively, then the patients should lawfully be able to have the option to make that choice.Cancer patients have found marijuana to be very effective in treating the side effects of chemotherapy. In an article in Time, Marijuana Where Theres Smoke, Theres Fire, cancer patient Jo Daly, has described her experience with chemotherapy as a nuclear implosion of nausea. She went on to contend feeling a burning pain under the nails of her fingers and toes. After she had tried many different alternatives to relieve her pain, she tried marijuana which seemed to be the only drug effective in relieving her pain. Jo Daly is not the only one to reveal marijuana effective in relieving the discomforts of chemotherapy. During the late seventies, and mid-eighties, six states performed research on how well marijuana operated on combatting chemotherapy related nausea and vomiting (Medical use of Marijuana 2). Their studies concluded that marij uana an extremely effective way to deal with the side effects of chemotherapy (Medical use of Marijuana 2). Prevention and control of nausea and vomiting is paramount in the treatment of cancer patients (Information for Physicians 1). The reason that nausea and vomiting needs to be controlled is that, These can result in serious metabolic derangements, nutritional depletion, deterioration of a patients physical and mental status, insulation from potentially useful and curative antineoplastic treatment, and degeneration of self-care and functional ability. (Information for Physicians 1). For cancer patients it is very important to control their nausea and vomiting and marijuana seems to be able to accomplish this. It seems reasonable to allow patients the option and make medical marijuana available for their use.Another disease that marijuana seems to be useful in pain relief is multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis is a painful central nervous disease for which there is no known c ure. The most common complaint of multiple sclerosis patients is the pain of powerful muscle spasms, vertigo, and double vision, all of which can make life almost unbearable (A Daughters Pain 1). There are some patients who say that marijuana can help in relieving them of these symptoms (A Daughters Pain 1). Even though there are existing medications offered to treat multiple sclerosis, many choose marijuana to relieve them of their suffering (A Daughters Pain 1). The reason for this is that other medications often result in severe side effects, that marijuana does not seem to have (A Daughters Pain 1). There is no documentation of this because there have been no controlled clinical trials that have compared marijuana with existing legal drugs (Your Health 3). There is proof, however, inthe fact that many patients choose to purchase marijuana to relieve their pain at any cost. nigh patients are even unstrained to go to jail to get their marijuana, because for them, it is the only thing that proves to be effective (Federal Foolishness and Marijuana 1).Marijuana has also been found useful for treating patients with aid. It seems that marijuana can positively help aid patients in several ways. Some ways that marijuana can help is by relieving stress and depression, eliminating nausea, bring down pain, and fighting the AIDS blow syndrome by enhancing the appetite (Stop Using Patients as Pawns 1). Even though there are many treatments, AIDS patients who are in the final stages of the disease still suffer greatly. The legal options for these AIDS patients are the human growth hormone, another type of hormone called Megace, and the synthetic THC pill, Marinol (Your Health 3). These are the only FDA approved drugs for treating AIDS wasting syndrome, but some patients say that these are not adequate substitutes for marijuana (Your Health 3). It was said by one patient on Marinol that, both it did was make me groggy without enhancing my appetite., but marijuana has been found to increase the appetites of AIDS patients. AIDS activists and the doctors who treat the disease report that marijuana is also useful for suppressing the nausea thats a side effect of several anti AIDS drugs (Your Health 3). Another vital concern when dealing with an AIDS patients is their immune system. However, when studying HIV-positive men who used marijuana, it was determined that the marijuana did not seem to accelerate the deterioration of their immune systems (Your Health 4). This is another important consideration in treating this deadly disease.There are many different viewpoints on the use of marijuana as a medicine. These different points of view result in many important issues regarding the use of an illegal drug for medicinal use. Even though there are many people who are against legalizing marijuana for medical purposes, there are just as many who feel that if used correctly, marijuana can be an innate part of treating serious diseases. For centuries m arijuana has been used to help those who are in need of effective pain relief . There are many doctors and patients, who feel that the usefulness and effectiveness of marijuana is being overlooked. As a result, many doctors are recommending the use of marijuana, regardless of the possible legal issues. Many patients, who are suffering from cancer, multiple sclerosis, and AIDS, have discovered that marijuana is a drug that provides them with much needed relief and they are using marijuana regardless of the consequences. In basic terms Marijuana may have long term adverse effects and its use may foreshadow serious addictions, but neither long-term side effects nor addictions is a relevant issue in such patients (Federal Foolishness and Marijuana 1) succession advocating the legalization of marijuana as a recreational drug would be detrimental to society, its effectiveness for medicinal uses is clear and needs to be naughtily considered.

Practices of Agile Methods in Project Management

Practices of busy Methods in depict commissionAbstractThis pertlyspaper follows the practices of immediate methods from the sen c cheatridge clipnt head of insure guidance.The befuddle solicitude techniques atomic enactment 18 interlacing b dictatees that look at the to a lower congealstanding and coordination of more or less(prenominal) domains of experience.As ofttimes and much softw atomic number 18 devices anticipate industrious Methods, on that establish be uphill patterns of conquest and failure. With growing word sense of busy Methods, thrustion managers progressively film to at a lower stainstand the applicability to their visualises and factors that bring distinguish intercommunicate performance characteristics. fast Methods get across advantages, especi either(prenominal)y in cooperative switch due to volatile fates. However, they besides present app go forwardderage lay on the lines with managing the m both(prenominal ) dependent pieces of civilise distri only ifed across a large tolerate.The paper is dissever into four break aways. In the first initiate an all overview of the jut discover instruction and its wreakes and knowledge aras discussed. subsequently that the straightaway methods discussed chase with a short crinkle relationship of rad(We should mention that just three almost utilize and famous methodologies atomic number 18 discussed).In the second interpreter the enter direction bettermentes and a shortened ex visualiseation of each come give away ar devoted.In the third part we looked at the supple methodologies from flip direction atomic number 18as view much(prenominal) as live, period, reference and risk attention and we compared lively methodologies and we explained their advantages and disadvantages.In the fourth part we discussed nearly(predicate) combination of agile methodologies and their utilization in large and compound molds.An d last we propose our own root word about the future of lying-in charge in agile methods.Keywords calculate worry, quick using Methodologies, sp rightfieldly roam Management, History of RAD, childbed prudence appeales, Agile Performance Measurement, coronation and happen, Agile Enterprise Frame travel, Agile Methodology FitIntroductionWhat is see?A piece employment that strains a clear objective against a time scaleA thrust is a adept-shot, time- circumscribed, goal-directed, guinea pig under fetching, requiring the committal of varied skills and resources.A attend is a passing endeavor under schooln to gain a unique ingathering or re figures. A fox is temporary in that there is a delimitate start (the decision to function) and a defined end (the attainment of the goals and objectives). Ongoing business or keep trading trans performances are non go throughs. Energy conservation come acrosss and touch advance attempts that answer in better business accomplishes or more noble-octane operations dirty dog be defined as pukes. moulds usu all(prenominal) toldy embroil constraints and risks regarding comprise, archive or performance outcome.What is Project Management?Many be in possession of act to define forecast centering. One physical exertion, Oisen,3 referencing views from the 1950s, may restrain been one of the azoic attempts. Project Management is the application of a collection of tools and techniques (such as the CPM and matrix organization) to direct the use of assorted resources toward the accomplishment of a unique, complex, one-time travail inwardly time, cost and smell constraints. from each one t submit requires a special(a) flick of theses tools and techniques structured to fit the task environment and living calendar method (from supposition to accomplishment) of the task.Notice in the definition are involved more or less the winner criteria, The Iron triangle. Those criteri a for measuring success included in the rendering utilise by Oisen3 continue to be utilize to describe meet charge today. The British Standard for fox central point BS60794 1996 defined aim focal point asThe be after, monitoring and control of all aspects of a confuse and the motive of all those involved in it to achieve the flip objectives on time and to the specified cost, graphic symbol and performance. The UK Association of roam Management (APM) impart produced a UK Body of Knowledge UK (BoK)5which as soundly as bring home the bacon fors a definition for give way asThe provision, organization, monitoring and control of all aspects of a get off and the pauperization of all involved to achieve the hold objectives safely and indoors concord time, cost and performance criteria. The run across manager is the single point of responsibility for achieving this. Other definitions have been offered, Reiss6 kick ups a make is a homosexual exercise that ac hieves a clear objective against a time scale, and to achieve this darn pointing out that a dewy-eyed description is non possible, suggests endure solicitude is a combination of focal point and be after and the management of mixture.Locks7 view was that project management had evolved in order to plan, co-ordinate and control the complex and diverse activities of modern industrial and commercial projects, epoch Burke8 considers project management to be a specialized management technique, to plan and control projects under a strong single point of responsibility.While some dissimilar suggestions about what is project management have been made, the criteria for success, namely cost, time and quality remain and are included in the actual description. Could this mean that the character given to define project management Oisen3 was either correct, or as a fudge factor, project management has non really salmagundid or highly- demonstr fit the success measurement criteria in al most 50 years.Project management is a learning profession. Based upon past mistakes and believed best practice, standards such as BS 60794 and the UK Body of Knowledge5 continue to be developed. But defining project management is difficult, Wirth,9 indicated the differences in content between six countries own versions of BoKs. Turner10 provided a consolidate matrix to help understand and moderate different attempts to describe project management, including the assessment. Turner10 further suggested that project management could be described as the art and science of converting vision into reality. Note the criteria against which project management is measured is non included in that description. Is there a paradox yet in even offing attempting to define project management? Can a bailiwick which deals with a unique, one-off complex task as suggested as ahead tidy sum(predicate) as Oisen3 be defined? Perhaps project management is apparently an evolving phenomena, which leav e remain vague affluent to be non-definable, a flexible belongings which could be a strength. The earthshaking point is that while the factors have developed and been adopted, changes to the success criteria have been suggested only if remain unchanged. Could the link be, that project management continues to fail be make up, included in the definition are a limited set of criteria for measuring success, cost, time and quality, which even if these criteria are achieved apparently certify the chance of matching ii best guesses and a phenomena correctly. prior(prenominal) to some undergraduate lectures and influenceshops about project management, the students were asked to locate some junior-grade literary intersectionions describing project management and produce their own definition. While there were some innovative ideas, the overriding responses included the success criteria of cost, time and quality deep down the definition. If this is the perception about project man agement we wish those about to pass water in the profession to have, the rhetoric over the years has kneaded. Has this provided been the enigma to realizing more sure-fire projects? To date, project management has had the success criteria cerebrate upon the saving stage, up to implementation. Reinforced by the very description we have proceed to use to define the profession. The snap has been to judge whether the project was through with(p) right. Doing something right may turn out in a project which was employ on time, within cost and to some quality parameters requested, but which is not used by the nodes, not liked by the sponsors and does not come out to provide either improved strength or efficiency for the organization, is this successful project management?Project Management breeding staveThe bidding tend of Project management processes is shown below. The various elements of project management life stave areNeed identificationevocation provision death p enalty dictatorialClosing outa) Need IdentificationThe first tone of voice in the project phylogenesis cycle is to identify components of the project. Projects may be identify both internally and externallyInternal identification takes place when the null manager identifies a package of zippo saving opportunities during the cursory skill management activities, or from facility audits.External identification of null nest egg washbowl occur through governanceatic energy audits undertaken by a reputable energy auditor or energy do company.In screening projects, the by-line criteria should be used to rank-order project opportunities.Cost-effectiveness of energy savings of commit package of measures (Internal rate of return, net present value, specie flow, bonny payback)Sustainability of the savings over the life of the equipment.Ease of quantifying, monitoring, and verifying electrical energy and fire savings.Availability of technology, and ease of adaptability of the t echnology to Indian conditions.Other environmental and complaisant cost welfares (such as reduction in local pollutants, e.g. SOx)b) InitiationInitiating is the sanctioned processes that should be performed to get the project started. This starting point is minute because those who exit deliver the project, those who leave alone use the Bureau of Energy efficiency project, and those who go awaying have a stake in the project need to reach an agreement on its initiation. Involving all stakeholders in the project builds generally improves the prospect of satisfying customer requirements by shared ownership of the project by the stakeholders. The success of the project aggroup depends upon starting with complete and complete information, management fight down, and the authorization necessary to manage the project.The initiation stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areasAnalyzing the business needs/requirements in mensural goalsReviewing of the accr edited operationsFinancial analysis of the costs and benefits including a calculateStakeholder analysis, including substance absubstance abusers, and birth personnel for the projectProject charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and registerc) PlanningThe supplying sort is considered the most big conformation in project management. Project cookery defines project activities that give be performed the products that go out be produced, and describes how these activities leave be accomplished and managed. Project planning defines each major task, estimates the time, resources and cost required, and provides a frame figure for management review and control. Planning involves identifying and documenting grasp, tasks, schedules, cost, risk, quality, and staffing needs.The result of the project planning, the project plan, exit be an rout outonical, comprehensive document that allows a project police squad to flummox and complete the work necessary to achieve the pro ject goals and objectives. The project plan will address how the project squad up will manage the project elements. It will provide a high take of confidence in the organizations ability to meet the cathode-ray oscilloscope, timing, cost, and quality requirements by addressing all aspects of the project.Project planning generally consists of find how to plan (e.g. by take of detail or rolling wave) growth the scope storyselecting the planning teamidentifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structureidentifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequenceestimating the resource requirements for the activitiesestimating time and cost for activities evolution the scheduledeveloping the budgetrisk planninggaining formal favourable reception to begin work.Additional processes, such as planning for chats and for scope management, identifying roles and responsibilities, ascertain what to purchase for the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generally advisable.For new product reading projects, conceptual object of the operation of the final product may be performed concurrent with the project planning activities, and may help to inform the planning team when identifying deliverables and planning activitiesd) penaliseOnce a project involves into the work phase, the project team and all necessary resources to carry out the project should be in place and ready to perform project activities. The project plan is stainless and stall lined by this time as well. The project team and the project managers focus now shifts from planning the project trys to participating, observing, and analyzing the work orb done.The execution phase is when the work activities of the project plan are executed, resulting in the completion of the project deliverables and achievement of the project objective(s). This phase brings together all of the project management disciplines, resulting i n a product or service that will meet the project deliverable requirements and the customers need. During this phase, elements completed in the planning phase are implemented, time is expended, and money is spent.In short, it agency arrange and managing the project resources while execution the project plan, performing the planned project activities, and ensuring they are completed efficiently.e) supervise and tyrannicalProject Control usance that involves analyze actual performance with planned performance and taking strict action to get the desired outcome when there are substantial differences. By monitoring and measuring progress regularly, identifying Bureau of Energy efficiency variances from plan, and taking disciplinary action if required, project control ensures that project objectives are met. observe and Controlling includesMeasuring the ongoing project activities (where we are)Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project mana gement plan and the project performance homeline (where we should be) break corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (How croupe we get on get across again)Influencing the factors that could puzzle mix ind change control so only approved changes are implementedIn multi-phase projects,process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into entry with the project management plan.Project Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes act support of end usersCorrection of errorsUpdates of the packet system program over timeMonitoring and Controlling cycleIn this stage, auditors should pay attention to how in effect and chop-chop user problems are resolved.Over the course of any social organization project, the work scope may change. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes hind end be the result of necessary design modifications, differing com mit conditions, textile availability, hugor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be attested to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner unremarkably requires a final record to show all changes or, more limitedally, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, as built. The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts.When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is burning(prenominal) not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not just ify the original proposed investment in the project.f) Closing outProject closeout is performed after all defined project objectives have been met and the customer has officially accepted the projects deliverables and end product or, in some instances, when a project has been cancelled or terminated earliest. Although, project closeout is a deed process, it is an important one. By properly completing the project closeout, organizations can benefit from lessons wise(p) and information compiled. The project closeout phase is comprised of contract closeout and administrative closure.This phase consists ofProject close Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the project or a project phase exhort closure Complete and settle each contract (including the resolvent of any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phaseProject Management Knowledge Areas with the associate Processes individually of the nine knowledge area s contains the processes that need to be accomplished within its discipline in order to achieve an effective project management program. Each of these processes also falls into one of the quin basic process groups, creating a matrix structure such that every process can be related to one knowledge area and one process group.Risk Management bundle using projects represent an investment of resources by the projects sponsor, an investment that often yields tiny or no return. The Standish collections Chaos tarradiddle 1994 states that few than 10% of computer software projects in large companies were successful. Medium size companies do better with 16% of their software projects being successful, and small companies observe on 28% of their software projects (Standish 1994). Given these statistics it is worthwhile to invest signifi formalism effort in Risk Management for software projects. Research at The Standish Group also indicates that smaller time frames, with delivery of s oftware components early and often, will increase the success rate. (Standish 1994).Integration Management positive programing offers nothing to help integrate the efforts of non-software developers. Unfortunately, some advocates of extreme programme suggest that the efforts of good writers, database managers, and quality assurance specialist are not required. In reality, while essential programming does not explicitly describe how to integrate the work of separates, the practices do not preclude the ability to integrate with some separate efforts. secondary Releases make Integration Management a more around-the-clock process in contrast to processes that place deployment, documentation, and testing at the end of the schedule. nonstop IntegrationAt a more tactical level, the primitive programme practice of Continuous Integration requires that the work of software developers be integrated on a daily basis. While this practice can cause additional overhead for exclusive developers, it allows the team to identify problems daily that would separatewise become undiscovered rework accumulating until all developers integrate their separate work products.Scope Management Time ManagementAsk most software development teams for a copy of their project plan and you will apprehend an activity list formatted as a Gantt chart. Many time these activity lists will describe several phases of activities such as Analysis, Design, Construction, and Testing. Areas of functionality will be broken out under these headings in order to declare them to specific programmers, but seldom are the assignments identified in the Gantt chart understandably traceable back to a Requirement or other judicial admission documents. in all too often, the missing item that would help a team improve their planning practices is a well-constructed Work Breakdown Structure. Extreme computer programming focuses almost all of its planning efforts on building a profound Work Breakdown Structure and its constituent Work Packages.Extreme Programming does not teach Work Breakdown Structures and Work Packages explicitly, however, diligent study of the Story Cards used in Extreme Programming reveals that they are almost identical to Work Packages in their key attributes. pitying Resources ManagementOften one of the most challenging aspects of project management is managing human resources. For software development projects in particular this includes the complex juggling of expert tasks between individual software developers who have different individual skills, effectively treating each developers assigned tasks as an independent subproject. This type of project plan often suffers from key resource bottlenecks and status meetings reduced to determining which individuals are falling furthest behind. Extreme Programming addresses this head-on by eliminating the dependence on individual developers. Work Packages are scheduled and classical ground on the needs of th e business and the users not the needs of the software developers. All developers are cross-trained to work in all areas of the encrypt base. Developers widen their skills, and project managers stop worrying about keeping individual software developers for the built-in duration of the project. The process maintains knowledge of the full code base in the team, not in individuals.Quality ManagementAs programmers move from work authorization to work authorization, and often from one area of the code to another, it is open to see that maintaining quality in the work product could be challenging. Extreme Programming requires a very disciplined design approach to allow freedom in assigning resources while maintaining high quality.communications ManagementWhen a project manager mentions the need for improved communications on a project, software developers often immediately envision an change magnitude number of meetings and documents. While formal meetings and written documents have t heir place in a communication plan there are some(prenominal) other tools for facilitation of communication between project participants. The Extreme Programming practices include several simple practices intended to enhance communications.Costs ManagementOften a Project Manager is evaluated on his or her ability to complete a project within budget. The costs include estimated cost, actual cost and variability. misadventure cost takes into account influence of weather, suppliers and design allowances.How the 80/20 witness can help a project manager?The 80/20 normal means that in anything a few (20 portion) are critical and many (80 percent) are trivial. Successful Project Managers know that 20 percent of the work (the first 10 percent and the last 10 percent) consumes 80 percent of your time and resources.The History of RADTraditional lifecycles devised in the 1970s, and lock widely used today, are based upon a structured step-by-step approach to developing administration s. This rigid sequence of steps forces a user to sign-off after the completion of each specification before development can proceed to the next step. The requirements and design are and so frozen and the system is coded, tested, and implemented. With such conventional methods, there is a long delay before the customer gets to see any results and the development process can take so long that the customers business could fundamentally change before the system is even ready for use. In response to these rigid, cascading, one-way steps of Stagewise or waterfall beats of development, Barry Boehm, Chief SW Engineer at TRW, introduced his coil simulate. The Spiral Model is a risk-driven, as opposed to code-driven, approach that uses process mould instead than methodology phases. Through his model, Boehm first implemented software prototyping as a way of reducing risk. The development process of the Spiral Model separates the product into critical parts or levels while performing risk analyses, prototyping, and the same(p) steps at each of these levels. Similarly, Tom Gilbs Evolutionary Life Cycle is based on an evolutionary prototyping rationale where the prototype is enceinte and clear into the final product.The work of Boehm and Gilb paved the way for the formulation of the methodology called Rapid Iterative Production Prototyping (RIPP) at DuPont in the mid-to-late 1980s. James Martin then(prenominal) broaden the work done at DuPont and elsewhere into a larger, more formalistic process, which has become known as Rapid Application festering (RAD). RAD compresses the step-by-step development of conventional methods into an iterative process. The RAD approach gum olibanum includes developing and refining the data models, process models, and prototype in match using an iterative process. User requirements are refined, a closure is designed, the solving is prototyped, the prototype is reviewed, user input is provided, and the process begins again.What i s elation? in that location is no Agility for Dummies. Agility isnt a silver bullet. You dont achieve it in five easy steps. So what is it? From one view nimbleness characterized in two statementsAgility is the ability to both create and respond to change in order to profit in a degenerate business environment.Agility is the ability to match tractableness and stability (Highsmith 2002).In an doubtful and turbulent world, success belongs to companies that have the capacity to create change, and maybe even chaos, for their competitors. Creating change disrupts competitors (and the entire market ecosystem) responding to change guards against competitive thrusts. Creating change requires conversion developing new products, creating new sales channels, reducing product development time, customizing products for increasingly smaller market segments. In addition, your company must be able to respond quickly to both anticipated and unanticipated changes created by your competitors an d customers.An example of a product development effort in which all the aspects of agility come into play is that of small, portable DNA analyzers. These instruments can be used for analyzing suspected bio-terror agents (e.g., anthrax), performing quick medical diagnoses, or undertaking environmental bacterial analysis. These instruments must be accurate, easy to use, and reliable under wide-ranging conditions, and their development depends on breakthroughs in nanotechnology, genome research, and micro-fluidics. Developing these leading-edge products requires blending flexibility and structure, exploring various new technologies, and creating change for competitors by reducing delivery time. These are not projects that can be managed by traditional, prescriptive project management methodologies. well-nigh pot mistakenly assume that agility connotes a miss of structure, but the absence of structure, or stability, generates chaos. Conversely, too much structure generates rigidity. complexity surmise tells us that innovationcreating something new in ways that we cant amply anticipate (an emergent result) occurs most readily at the symmetricalness point between chaos and order, between flexibility and stability. Scientists believe that emergence, the trigger of renewing from agent interaction, happens most readily at this edge of chaos. The idea of enough structure, but not too much, drives agile managers to continually ask the question, How little structure can I get away with? likewise much structure stifles creativity. Too little structure breeds inefficiency.This need to balance at the edge of chaos to foster innovation is one lawsuit process-centric methodologies often fail. They push organizations into over-optimization at the expense of innovation. Agile organizations dont get preoccupied in some gray middle ground they understand which factors require stabilisation and which ones encourage exploration. For example, in a high-change product devel opment environment, pie-eyed strain management stabilizes and facilitates flexibility just as a focus on technical excellence stabilizes the development effort.Overview and definitionsThe Agile Movement in software industry saw the light of day with the AgileSoftware Development Manifesto4 published by a group of software practitioners and consultants in 2001 (Beck et al. 2001 Cockburn 2002a). The focal values honored by the agilists are presented in the followingIndividuals and interactions over processes and toolsWorking software over comprehensive documentation guest collaborationism over contract negotiationResponding to change over following a planThese central values that the agile community adheres to areFirst, the agile movement emphasizes the relationship and communality of software developers and the human role reflected in the contracts, as opposed to institutionalized processes and development tools. In the brisk agile practices, this manifests itself in close team r elationships, close working environment arrangements, and other procedures boosting team spirit.Second, the vital objective of the software team is to continuously turn out tested working software. New releases are produced at patronize intervals, in some approaches even hourly or daily, but more usually bi-monthly or monthly. The developers are urged to keep the code simple, straightforward, and technically as mature as possible, thus lessening the documentation burden to an sequester level.Third, the relationship and cooperation between the developers and the clients is given the preference over strict contracts, although the magnificence of well drafted contracts does grow at the same pace as the size of the software project. The negotiation process itself should be seen as a means of achieving and maintaining a viable relationship. From a business point of view, agile development is focus on delivering business value immediately as the project starts, thus reducing the ris ks of non-fulfillment regarding the contract.Fourth, the development group, comprising both software developers and customer representatives, should be well-informed, suitable and authorized to consider possible adjustment needs emerging during the development process life-cycle. This means that the participants are prepared to make changes and that also the existing contracts are formed with tools that support and allow these enhancements to be made. fit in to Highsmith and Cockburn (2001, p. 122), what is new about agile methods is not the practices they use, but their recognition of people as the primary drivers of project success, coupled with an intense focus on effectiveness and maneuverability. This yields a new combination of values and principles that define an agile world view. Boehm (2002) illustrates the spectrum of different planning methods with Figure 1, in which hackers are move at one end and the so called inch-pebble ironbound contractual approach at the antagon ist endHawrysh and Ruprecht (2000) state that a single methodology can not work for the whole spectrum of different projects, but instead the project management should identify the specific nature of the project at hand and then select the besPractices of Agile Methods in Project ManagementPractices of Agile Methods in Project ManagementAbstractThis paper describes the practices of agile methods from the outdoor stage of project management.The project management techniques are complex processes that require the apprehension and coordination of several domains of knowledge.As more and more software projects engage Agile Methods, there are emerging patterns of success and failure. With growing adoption of Agile Methods, project managers increasingly need to understand the applicability to their projects and factors that drive key project performance characteristics.Agile Methods have advantages, especially in accommodating change due to volatile requirements. However, they also pres ent concomitant risks with managing the many dependent pieces of work distributed across a large project.The paper is divided into four parts. In the first part an overview of the project management and its processes and knowledge areas discussed. after that the agile methods discussed following with a short history of RAD(We should mention that just three most used and famous methodologies are discussed).In the second part the project management approaches and a brief definition of each approach are given.In the third part we looked at the agile methodologies from project management areas view such as cost, time, quality and risk management and we compared agile methodologies and we explained their advantages and disadvantages.In the fourth part we discussed about combination of agile methodologies and their utilization in large and complex projects.And finally we propose our own idea about the future of project management in agile methods.Keywords Project Management, Rapid Develop ment Methodologies, Agile Project Management, History of RAD, Project management approaches, Agile Performance Measurement, Investment and Risk, Agile Enterprise Framework, Agile Methodology FitIntroductionWhat is Project?A human activity that achieves a clear objective against a time scaleA project is a one-shot, time-limited, goal-directed, major undertaking, requiring the commitment of varied skills and resources.A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. A project is temporary in that there is a defined start (the decision to proceed) and a defined end (the achievement of the goals and objectives). Ongoing business or maintenance operations are not projects. Energy conservation projects and process improvement efforts that result in better business processes or more efficient operations can be defined as projects. Projects usually include constraints and risks regarding cost, schedule or performance outcome.What is Project Management?Many have attempted to define project management. One example, Oisen,3 referencing views from the 1950s, may have been one of the early attempts. Project Management is the application of a collection of tools and techniques (such as the CPM and matrix organization) to direct the use of diverse resources toward the accomplishment of a unique, complex, one-time task within time, cost and quality constraints. Each task requires a particular mix of theses tools and techniques structured to fit the task environment and life cycle (from conception to completion) of the task.Notice in the definition are included some the success criteria, The Iron triangle. Those criteria for measuring success included in the description used by Oisen3 continue to be used to describe project management today. The British Standard for project management BS60794 1996 defined project management asThe planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all those involved in it to ach ieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. The UK Association of project Management (APM) have produced a UK Body of Knowledge UK (BoK)5which also provides a definition for project management asThe planning, organization, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all involved to achieve the project objectives safely and within agreed time, cost and performance criteria. The project manager is the single point of responsibility for achieving this. Other definitions have been offered, Reiss6 suggests a project is a human activity that achieves a clear objective against a time scale, and to achieve this while pointing out that a simple description is not possible, suggests project management is a combination of management and planning and the management of change.Locks7 view was that project management had evolved in order to plan, co-ordinate and control the complex and diverse activities of modern industrial and commercial projects, while Burke8 considers project management to be a specialized management technique, to plan and control projects under a strong single point of responsibility.While some different suggestions about what is project management have been made, the criteria for success, namely cost, time and quality remain and are included in the actual description. Could this mean that the example given to define project management Oisen3 was either correct, or as a discipline, project management has not really changed or developed the success measurement criteria in almost 50 years.Project management is a learning profession. Based upon past mistakes and believed best practice, standards such as BS 60794 and the UK Body of Knowledge5 continue to be developed. But defining project management is difficult, Wirth,9 indicated the differences in content between six countries own versions of BoKs. Turner10 provided a consolidated matrix to help understand and moderate different atte mpts to describe project management, including the assessment. Turner10 further suggested that project management could be described as the art and science of converting vision into reality. Note the criteria against which project management is measured is not included in that description. Is there a paradox however in even attempting to define project management? Can a subject which deals with a unique, one-off complex task as suggested as early as Oisen3 be defined? Perhaps project management is simply an evolving phenomena, which will remain vague enough to be non-definable, a flexible attribute which could be a strength. The significant point is that while the factors have developed and been adopted, changes to the success criteria have been suggested but remain unchanged. Could the link be, that project management continues to fail because, included in the definition are a limited set of criteria for measuring success, cost, time and quality, which even if these criteria are ac hieved simply demonstrate the chance of matching two best guesses and a phenomena correctly. Prior to some undergraduate lectures and workshops about project management, the students were asked to locate some secondary literature describing project management and produce their own definition. While there were some innovative ideas, the overriding responses included the success criteria of cost, time and quality within the definition. If this is the perception about project management we wish those about to work in the profession to have, the rhetoric over the years has worked. Has this however been the problem to realizing more successful projects? To date, project management has had the success criteria focused upon the delivery stage, up to implementation. Reinforced by the very description we have continued to use to define the profession. The focus has been to judge whether the project was done right. Doing something right may result in a project which was implemented on time, w ithin cost and to some quality parameters requested, but which is not used by the customers, not liked by the sponsors and does not seem to provide either improved effectiveness or efficiency for the organization, is this successful project management?Project Management Life CycleThe process flow of Project management processes is shown below. The various elements of project management life cycle areNeed identificationInitiationPlanningExecutingControllingClosing outa) Need IdentificationThe first step in the project development cycle is to identify components of the project. Projects may be identified both internally and externallyInternal identification takes place when the energy manager identifies a package of energy saving opportunities during the day-to-day energy management activities, or from facility audits.External identification of energy savings can occur through systematic energy audits undertaken by a reputable energy auditor or energy service company.In screening proj ects, the following criteria should be used to rank-order project opportunities.Cost-effectiveness of energy savings of complete package of measures (Internal rate of return, net present value, cash flow, average payback)Sustainability of the savings over the life of the equipment.Ease of quantifying, monitoring, and verifying electricity and fuel savings.Availability of technology, and ease of adaptability of the technology to Indian conditions.Other environmental and social cost benefits (such as reduction in local pollutants, e.g. SOx)b) InitiationInitiating is the basic processes that should be performed to get the project started. This starting point is critical because those who will deliver the project, those who will use the Bureau of Energy Efficiency project, and those who will have a stake in the project need to reach an agreement on its initiation. Involving all stakeholders in the project phases generally improves the probability of satisfying customer requirements by s hared ownership of the project by the stakeholders. The success of the project team depends upon starting with complete and accurate information, management support, and the authorization necessary to manage the project.The initiation stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areasAnalyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goalsReviewing of the current operationsFinancial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budgetStakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the projectProject charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedulec) PlanningThe planning phase is considered the most important phase in project management. Project planning defines project activities that will be performed the products that will be produced, and describes how these activities will be accomplished and managed. Project planning defines each major task, estimates the time, resources and cost required, and provides a framework for management re view and control. Planning involves identifying and documenting scope, tasks, schedules, cost, risk, quality, and staffing needs.The result of the project planning, the project plan, will be an approved, comprehensive document that allows a project team to begin and complete the work necessary to achieve the project goals and objectives. The project plan will address how the project team will manage the project elements. It will provide a high level of confidence in the organizations ability to meet the scope, timing, cost, and quality requirements by addressing all aspects of the project.Project planning generally consists ofdetermining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail or rolling wave)developing the scope statementselecting the planning teamidentifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structureidentifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequenceestimating the resource requirements for the activities estimating time and cost for activitiesdeveloping the scheduledeveloping the budgetrisk planninggaining formal approval to begin work.Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope management, identifying roles and responsibilities, determining what to purchase for the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generally advisable.For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the final product may be performed concurrent with the project planning activities, and may help to inform the planning team when identifying deliverables and planning activitiesd) ExecutingOnce a project moves into the execution phase, the project team and all necessary resources to carry out the project should be in place and ready to perform project activities. The project plan is completed and base lined by this time as well. The project team and the project managers focus now shifts from planning the project efforts to participating, observing, an d analyzing the work being done.The execution phase is when the work activities of the project plan are executed, resulting in the completion of the project deliverables and achievement of the project objective(s). This phase brings together all of the project management disciplines, resulting in a product or service that will meet the project deliverable requirements and the customers need. During this phase, elements completed in the planning phase are implemented, time is expended, and money is spent.In short, it means coordinating and managing the project resources while executing the project plan, performing the planned project activities, and ensuring they are completed efficiently.e) Monitoring and ControllingProject Control function that involves comparing actual performance with planned performance and taking corrective action to get the desired outcome when there are significant differences. By monitoring and measuring progress regularly, identifying Bureau of Energy Effic iency variances from plan, and taking corrective action if required, project control ensures that project objectives are met.Monitoring and Controlling includesMeasuring the ongoing project activities (where we are)Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be)Identify corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (How can we get on track again)Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implementedIn multi-phase projects,process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan.Project Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includesContinuing support of end usersCorrection of errorsUpdates of the software over timeMonitoring and Controlling cycleIn this stage, auditors should pay attenti on to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved.Over the course of any construction project, the work scope may change. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, as built. The requirement for providing them is a norm in constr uction contracts.When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not justify the original proposed investment in the project.f) Closing outProject closeout is performed after all defined project objectives have been met and the customer has formally accepted the projects deliverables and end product or, in some instances, when a project has been cancelled or terminated early. Although, project closeout is a routine process, it is an important one. By properly completing the project closeout, organizations can benefit from lessons learned and information compiled. The project closeout phase is comprised of contract closeout and administrative closure.This phase consists ofProject close Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the project or a project phaseContract cl osure Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phaseProject Management Knowledge Areas with the Related ProcessesEach of the nine knowledge areas contains the processes that need to be accomplished within its discipline in order to achieve an effective project management program. Each of these processes also falls into one of the five basic process groups, creating a matrix structure such that every process can be related to one knowledge area and one process group.Risk ManagementSoftware development projects represent an investment of resources by the projects sponsor, an investment that often yields little or no return. The Standish Groups Chaos Report 1994 states that fewer than 10% of software projects in large companies were successful. Medium sized companies do better with 16% of their software projects being successful, and small companies succeed on 28% of their software projec ts (Standish 1994). Given these statistics it is worthwhile to invest significant effort in Risk Management for software projects. Research at The Standish Group also indicates that smaller time frames, with delivery of software components early and often, will increase the success rate. (Standish 1994).Integration ManagementExtreme Programming offers nothing to help integrate the efforts of non-software developers. Unfortunately, some advocates of Extreme Programming suggest that the efforts of technical writers, database managers, and quality assurance specialist are not required. In reality, while Extreme Programming does not explicitly describe how to integrate the work of others, the practices do not preclude the ability to integrate with other efforts. Small Releases make Integration Management a more continuous process in contrast to processes that place deployment, documentation, and testing at the end of the schedule.Continuous IntegrationAt a more tactical level, the Extre me Programming practice of Continuous Integration requires that the work of software developers be integrated on a daily basis. While this practice can cause additional overhead for individual developers, it allows the team to identify problems daily that would other become undiscovered rework accumulating until all developers integrate their individual work products.Scope Management Time ManagementAsk most software development teams for a copy of their project plan and you will receive an activity list formatted as a Gantt chart. Many times these activity lists will describe several phases of activities such as Analysis, Design, Construction, and Testing. Areas of functionality will be broken out under these headings in order to assign them to specific programmers, but seldom are the assignments identified in the Gantt chart clearly traceable back to a Requirement or other specification documents. All too often, the missing item that would help a team improve their planning pract ices is a well-constructed Work Breakdown Structure. Extreme Programming focuses almost all of its planning efforts on building a thoughtful Work Breakdown Structure and its constituent Work Packages.Extreme Programming does not teach Work Breakdown Structures and Work Packages explicitly, however, careful study of the Story Cards used in Extreme Programming reveals that they are almost identical to Work Packages in their key attributes.Human Resources ManagementOften one of the most challenging aspects of project management is managing human resources. For software development projects in particular this includes the complex juggling of technical tasks between individual software developers who have different individual skills, effectively treating each developers assigned tasks as an independent subproject. This type of project plan often suffers from key resource bottlenecks and status meetings reduced to determining which individuals are falling furthest behind. Extreme Programm ing addresses this head-on by eliminating the dependency on individual developers. Work Packages are scheduled and authorized based on the needs of the business and the users not the needs of the software developers. All developers are cross-trained to work in all areas of the code base. Developers broaden their skills, and project managers stop worrying about keeping individual software developers for the entire duration of the project. The process maintains knowledge of the full code base in the team, not in individuals.Quality ManagementAs programmers move from work authorization to work authorization, and often from one area of the code to another, it is easy to see that maintaining quality in the work product could be challenging. Extreme Programming requires a very disciplined design approach to allow freedom in assigning resources while maintaining high quality.Communications ManagementWhen a project manager mentions the need for improved communications on a project, software developers often immediately envision an increased number of meetings and documents. While formal meetings and written documents have their place in a communication plan there are many other tools for facilitation of communication between project participants. The Extreme Programming practices include several simple practices intended to enhance communications.Costs ManagementOften a Project Manager is evaluated on his or her ability to complete a project within budget. The costs include estimated cost, actual cost and variability. Contingency cost takes into account influence of weather, suppliers and design allowances.How the 80/20 Rule can help a project manager?The 80/20 Rule means that in anything a few (20 percent) are vital and many (80 percent) are trivial. Successful Project Managers know that 20 percent of the work (the first 10 percent and the last 10 percent) consumes 80 percent of your time and resources.The History of RADTraditional lifecycles devised in the 1970s, an d still widely used today, are based upon a structured step-by-step approach to developing systems. This rigid sequence of steps forces a user to sign-off after the completion of each specification before development can proceed to the next step. The requirements and design are then frozen and the system is coded, tested, and implemented. With such conventional methods, there is a long delay before the customer gets to see any results and the development process can take so long that the customers business could fundamentally change before the system is even ready for use. In response to these rigid, cascading, one-way steps of Stagewise or Waterfall Models of development, Barry Boehm, Chief SW Engineer at TRW, introduced his SpiralModel. The Spiral Model is a risk-driven, as opposed to code-driven, approach that uses process modeling rather than methodology phases. Through his model, Boehm first implemented software prototyping as a way of reducing risk. The development process of the Spiral Model separates the product into critical parts or levels while performing risk analyses, prototyping, and the same steps at each of these levels. Similarly, Tom Gilbs Evolutionary Life Cycle is based on an evolutionary prototyping rationale where the prototype is grown and refined into the final product.The work of Boehm and Gilb paved the way for the formulation of the methodology called Rapid Iterative Production Prototyping (RIPP) at DuPont in the mid-to-late 1980s. James Martin then extended the work done at DuPont and elsewhere into a larger, more formalized process, which has become known as Rapid Application Development (RAD). RAD compresses the step-by-step development of conventional methods into an iterative process. The RAD approach thus includes developing and refining the data models, process models, and prototype in parallel using an iterative process. User requirements are refined, a solution is designed, the solution is prototyped, the prototype is review ed, user input is provided, and the process begins again.What is Agility?There is no Agility for Dummies. Agility isnt a silver bullet. You dont achieve it in five easy steps. So what is it? From one view agility characterized in two statementsAgility is the ability to both create and respond to change in order to profit in a turbulent business environment.Agility is the ability to balance flexibility and stability (Highsmith 2002).In an uncertain and turbulent world, success belongs to companies that have the capacity to create change, and maybe even chaos, for their competitors. Creating change disrupts competitors (and the entire market ecosystem) responding to change guards against competitive thrusts. Creating change requires innovation developing new products, creating new sales channels, reducing product development time, customizing products for increasingly smaller market segments. In addition, your company must be able to respond quickly to both anticipated and unanticipat ed changes created by your competitors and customers.An example of a product development effort in which all the aspects of agility come into play is that of small, portable DNA analyzers. These instruments can be used for analyzing suspected bio-terror agents (e.g., anthrax), performing quick medical diagnoses, or undertaking environmental bacterial analysis. These instruments must be accurate, easy to use, and reliable under wide-ranging conditions, and their development depends on breakthroughs in nanotechnology, genome research, and micro-fluidics. Developing these leading-edge products requires blending flexibility and structure, exploring various new technologies, and creating change for competitors by reducing delivery time. These are not projects that can be managed by traditional, prescriptive project management methodologies.Some people mistakenly assume that agility connotes a lack of structure, but the absence of structure, or stability, generates chaos. Conversely, too much structure generates rigidity. Complexity theory tells us that innovationcreating something new in ways that we cant fully anticipate (an emergent result) occurs most readily at the balance point between chaos and order, between flexibility and stability. Scientists believe that emergence, the creation of novelty from agent interaction, happens most readily at this edge of chaos. The idea of enough structure, but not too much, drives agile managers to continually ask the question, How little structure can I get away with? Too much structure stifles creativity. Too little structure breeds inefficiency.This need to balance at the edge of chaos to foster innovation is one reason process-centric methodologies often fail. They push organizations into over-optimization at the expense of innovation. Agile organizations dont get lost in some gray middle ground they understand which factors require stabilization and which ones encourage exploration. For example, in a high-change product development environment, rigorous configuration management stabilizes and facilitates flexibility just as a focus on technical excellence stabilizes the development effort.Overview and definitionsThe Agile Movement in software industry saw the light of day with the AgileSoftware Development Manifesto4 published by a group of software practitioners and consultants in 2001 (Beck et al. 2001 Cockburn 2002a). The focal values honored by the agilists are presented in the followingIndividuals and interactions over processes and toolsWorking software over comprehensive documentationCustomer collaboration over contract negotiationResponding to change over following a planThese central values that the agile community adheres to areFirst, the agile movement emphasizes the relationship and communality of software developers and the human role reflected in the contracts, as opposed to institutionalized processes and development tools. In the existing agile practices, this manifests itself in cl ose team relationships, close working environment arrangements, and other procedures boosting team spirit.Second, the vital objective of the software team is to continuously turn out tested working software. New releases are produced at frequent intervals, in some approaches even hourly or daily, but more usually bi-monthly or monthly. The developers are urged to keep the code simple, straightforward, and technically as advanced as possible, thus lessening the documentation burden to an appropriate level.Third, the relationship and cooperation between the developers and the clients is given the preference over strict contracts, although the importance of well drafted contracts does grow at the same pace as the size of the software project. The negotiation process itself should be seen as a means of achieving and maintaining a viable relationship. From a business point of view, agile development is focused on delivering business value immediately as the project starts, thus reducing the risks of non-fulfillment regarding the contract.Fourth, the development group, comprising both software developers and customer representatives, should be well-informed, competent and authorized to consider possible adjustment needs emerging during the development process life-cycle. This means that the participants are prepared to make changes and that also the existing contracts are formed with tools that support and allow these enhancements to be made.According to Highsmith and Cockburn (2001, p. 122), what is new about agile methods is not the practices they use, but their recognition of people as the primary drivers of project success, coupled with an intense focus on effectiveness and maneuverability. This yields a new combination of values and principles that define an agile world view. Boehm (2002) illustrates the spectrum of different planning methods with Figure 1, in which hackers are placed at one end and the so called inch-pebble ironbound contractual approach at th e opposite endHawrysh and Ruprecht (2000) state that a single methodology can not work for the whole spectrum of different projects, but instead the project management should identify the specific nature of the project at hand and then select the bes